Plant Engineers & Managers Guide 13

• Title : Plant Engineers & Managers Guide 13 by Albert Thumann, P.E., C.E.M.
• Publish : Marcel Dekker, Inc New York and Basel
• Type Document : pdf 
• Release : December 2002
• Total Page : 16 page
• Size : 0.43 Mb

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Reliable and Economic Natural Gas Distributed Generation Technologies
Distributed generation (DG) has emerged as a viable alternative to conventional central station power production. This chapter discusses natural gas-fueled distributed generation technologies, focusing on advanced industrial turbines and microturbines, reciprocating engines, and fuel cells. Each of these systems has the capability to improve power reliability and reduce environmental impacts at lower overall costs. Market barriers, such as the lack of standardized utility interconnection protocols, environmental permitting complexities, and public unfamiliarity with distributed generation technologies, have interfered with successful market applications. However, studies indicate that there is substantial growth potential for DG in the steel, petroleum, chemical, forest products, and other industries, as well as commercial buildings, government facilities, hospital complexes, industrial parks, multi-family buildings, and school campuses. This chapter will show that with continued support distributed generation will play a key role in energy production in the next millennium.

INTRODUCTION
Distributed generation (DG) involves small, modular electricity generation at or near the point of use. Utilities or customers can own DG systems, but there is a growing trend towards third party ownership.

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Plant Engineers & Managers Guide 12

• Title : Plant Engineers & Managers Guide 12 by Albert Thumann, P.E., C.E.M.
• Publish : Marcel Dekker, Inc New York and Basel
• Type Document : pdf 
• Release : December 2002
• Total Page : 21 page
• Size : 0.83 Mb

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Industrial Power Monitoring and Control
SUMMARY
This chapter highlights the observations and conclusions from two recently completed, year-long studies of commercially available industrial power monitoring and supervisory control systems (PM&SC) and their application in use. These studies were completed as part of the Electric Power 2000 Project1, EP2000, internally sponsored by Integrated Technology Research, a division of Syzegph Corporation. These studies were done under the direction of one of the authors, Kenneth E. Nicholson, P.E.
The EP2000 Project included two studies: a review of currently available commercial technology for industrial power monitoring and supervisory control systems, PM&SC2, and a survey of current applications in use of installed PM&SC systems3. The review study reveals that a new generation of power monitoring equipment, with local processing display and communications capabilities, has taken the state of the art well beyond metering and remote control. New software, mostly based on the Microsoft NT platform, has begun to form a new generation of process monitoring and supervisory control systems for industrial electric power infrastructures. The survey study, completed in late 1996, included over 70 North American industrial sites covering a significant portion of Fortune 100 companies where energy is a critical process component.

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Plant Engineers & Managers Guide 11

• Title : Plant Engineers & Managers Guide 11 by Albert Thumann, P.E., C.E.M.
• Publish : Marcel Dekker, Inc New York and Basel
• Type Document : pdf 
• Release : December 2002
• Total Page : 11 page
• Size : 0.40 Mb

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Managing an Effective Energy Conservation Program
ORGANIZING FOR ENERGY CONSERVATION
By now it should be clear that energy management affects almost every major activity of a plant. It is involved in:

• Electrical Engineering
• Control Systems Engineering
• Utility Engineering
• Piping Design
• Mechanical Engineering
• Chemical Engineering
• Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning Engineering
• Building Design
• Environmental Engineering
• Operations
• Maintenance
• Accounting and Financial Management

Each plant has assigned individuals who are responsible for one or more of the above functions. The problem facing management is how to organize the energy conservation activity so that all functions are moving in a common direction. The situation becomes more complex when several plants or outside consultants are involved. Direction and coordination for the program need to be provided. In most organizations, the function of the energy conservation coordinator/committee emerges.

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Plant Engineers & Managers Guide 10

• Title : Plant Engineers & Managers Guide 10 by Albert Thumann, P.E., C.E.M.
• Publish : Marcel Dekker, Inc New York and Basel
• Type Document : pdf 
• Release : December 2002
• Total Page : 14 page
• Size : 0.42 Mb

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Establishing a Maintenance Program For Plant Efficiency And Energy Savings
GOOD MAINTENANCE SAVES $
Energy losses due to leaks, uninsulated lines, dirt buildup, inoperable furnace controls, and other poor maintenance practices is directly translated into additional energy costs. Good maintenance saves in the plant’s yearly operating costs.

In this chapter, you will see the results of a survey on maintenance effectiveness, look at ways to turn around the maintenance program, and learn to apply a preventive maintenance program to energy conservation.

WHAT IS THE EFFECTIVENESS OF MOST MAINTENANCE PROGRAMS?
Poor maintenance can be readily translated into inefficient operation of systems. Inefficient operation of systems spells energy waste. 

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Plant Engineers & Managers Guide 09

• Title : Plant Engineers & Managers Guide 09 by Albert Thumann, P.E., C.E.M.
• Publish : Marcel Dekker, Inc New York and Basel
• Type Document : pdf 
• Release : December 2002
• Total Page : 31 page
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Cogeneration: Theory and Practice
Because of its enormous potential, it is important to understand and apply cogeneration theory. In the overall context of Energy Management Theory, cogeneration is just another form of the conservation process. However, because of its potential for practical application to new or existing systems, it has carved a niche that may be second to no other conservation technology.
This chapter is dedicated to development of a sound basis of current theory and practice of cogeneration technology. It is the blend of theory and practice, or praxis of cogeneration, that will form the basis of the most workable conservation technology in the coming years.

DEFINITION OF “COGENERATION”
Cogeneration is the sequential production of thermal and electric energy from a single fuel source. In the cogeneration process, heat is recovered that would normally be lost in the production of one form of energy. That heat is then used to generate the second form of energy. For example, take a situation in which an engine drives a generator that produces electricity: With cogeneration, heat would be recovered from the engine exhaust and/or coolant, and that heat would be used to produce, say, hot water.
Making use of waste heat is what differentiates cogeneration facilities from central station electric power generation. The overall fuel utilization efficiency of cogeneration plants is typically 70-80% versus 35- 40% for utility power plants.

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Plant Engineers & Managers Guide 08

• Title : Plant Engineers & Managers Guide 08 by Albert Thumann, P.E., C.E.M.
• Publish : Marcel Dekker, Inc New York and Basel
• Type Document : pdf 
• Release : December 2002
• Total Page : 34 page
• Size : 0.53 Mb

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Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning System Optimization
EFFICIENT USE OF HEATING AND COOLING EQUIPMENT SAVES DOLLARS
Most people have probably experienced improper air conditioning or heating controls which waste energy. Energy is saved when efficient heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems are used. In this chapter, you will learn how to compare the efficiency of various systems and apply the heat pump to save energy, see how various refrigeration systems can be used to save energy, learn the basics of air conditioning design from an energy conservation viewpoint, and begin to apply the computer approach for energy conservation.
Measuring System Efficiency by Using the Coefficient of Performance The coefficient of performance (COP) is the basic parameter used to compare the performance of refrigeration and heating systems.

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Plant Engineers & Managers Guide 07

• Title : Plant Engineers & Managers Guide 07 by Albert Thumann, P.E., C.E.M.
• Publish : Marcel Dekker, Inc New York and Basel
• Type Document : pdf
• Release : December 2002
• Total Page : 21 page
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Reducing Building Energy Losses
ENERGY LOSSES DUE TO HEAT LOSS AND HEAT GAIN
Depending on the time of year, a heat loss or a heat gain wastes energy. For example, a heat loss during the winter means wasted energy in heating the building. Similarly, during the summer months, a heat gain means wasted energy in cooling the building. The building construction affects the heat loss and heat gain. Figure 7-1 illustrates the total heat gain of the building. The flow of heat is always from one temperature to a colder temperature. The heat loss of a building is illustrated by Figure 7-2. In this case, the building is considered the “hot body.”

In the context of this book, heat loss refers to heating loads, while heat gain refers to cooling loads. By considering building materials and constructions, the associated heat loss and heat gains can be reduced. In this chapter, you will see: how to apply handy Building Construction Tables to solve most heat transfer problems, how substitutions of building materials saves energy, and how to apply different types of glass to save energy.
 
CONDUCTIVITY THROUGH BUILDING MATERIALS
The best conductors of heat are metals. Insulations such as wood, asbestos, cork, and felt are poor conductors. Conductance is widely used because many materials used in the construction of buildings are nonhomogeneous. 

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Plant Engineers & Managers Guide 06

• Title : Plant Engineers & Managers Guide 06 by Albert Thumann, P.E., C.E.M.
• Publish : Marcel Dekker, Inc New York and Basel
• Type Document : pdf 
• Release : December 2002
• Total Page : 21 page
• Size : 0.46 Mb

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Heat Transfer
THE IMPORTANCE OF UNDERSTANDING THE PRINCIPLES OF HEAT TRANSFER
The principles of heat transfer are the fundamental building blocks needed to understand how heat losses occur and how they can be minimized. Heat transfer finds application in equipment sizing as well. For instance, a heat exchanger is used to transfer heat from one fluid to another. Thus, heat transfer applications are involved with energy transfer in equipment, piping systems, and building. In Chapter 7, heat transfer applications to building design will be presented. In this chapter, you will learn three modes of heat transfer, see how much energy is lost from uninsulated tanks and pipes, and discover how to use economic insulation thickness tables to reduce heat losses.

THREE WAYS HEAT IS TRANSFERRED
Heat transfer is determined by the effects of conduction, radiation and convection. The three modes can be thought of simply as follows:
Conduction—Heat transfer is based on one space surrendering heat while another one gains it by the ability of the dividing surface to conduct heat.
Radiation—Heat transfer is based on the properties of light, where no surface or fluid is needed to carry heat from one object to another.
Convection—Heat transfer is based on the exchange of heat between a fluid, gas, or liquid as it transverses a conducting surface.

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Plant Engineers & Managers Guide 05

• Title : Plant Engineers & Managers Guide 05 by Albert Thumann, P.E., C.E.M.
• Publish : Marcel Dekker, Inc New York and Basel
• Type Document : pdf
• Release : December 2002
• Total Page : 42 page
• Size : 0.62 Mb

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Utility and Process System Optimization
The energy manager should analyze the total utility needs and the process for energy utilization opportunities. The overall heat and material balance and process flow diagram are very important tools. Each subprocess must also be analyzed in detail. In this chapter, waste heat recovery, boiler operation, utility, and process systems will be discussed.
 

BASIS OF THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics deals with the relationships between heat and work. It is based on two basic laws of nature: the first and second laws of thermodynamics. The principles are used in the design of equipment such as steam engines, turbines, pumps, and refrigerators, and in practically every process involving a flow of heat or a chemical equilibrium.

First Law: The first law states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, thus, it is referred to as the law of conservation of energy.

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Plant Engineers & Managers Guide 04

• Title : Plant Engineers & Managers Guide 04 by Albert Thumann, P.E., C.E.M.
• Publish : Marcel Dekker, Inc New York and Basel
• Type Document : pdf 
• Release : December 2002
• Total Page : 32 page
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Electrical System Optimization
APPLYING PROVEN TECHNIQUES TO REDUCE THE ELECTRICAL BILL
Electrical bills can be reduced by up to 30 percent by knowing the utility rate structure, by improving the plant power factor, by reducing peak loads, and by the efficient use of lighting. This chapter will illustrate these aspects as they apply to the energy utilization program.

WHY THE PLANT MANAGER SHOULD UNDERSTAND THE ELECTRIC RATE STRUCTURE
Each plant manager should understand how the plant is billed. Utility companies usually have several rate structures offered to customers. By understanding the electrical characteristics of the plant, the best rate structure for the plant is determined. Understanding the rate structure also enables the plant manager to avoid the penalties the utility company incorporates into its rates.
As a result of the National Energy Plan, public service commissions are conducting hearings to evaluate proposed rate tariff changes. Industry needs to actively participate in these hearings to make sure their interests are represented.
Some “rate reform” proposals in effect subsidize lower residential electricity prices by raising industrial electricity prices. Two of the reform proposals are as follows:
“Lifeline” rates—a plan to set low, below-cost prices for the first 300 to 500 kWh of electricity purchased by a household in a month.

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Plant Engineers & Managers Guide 03

• Title : Plant Engineers & Managers Guide 03 by Albert Thumann, P.E., C.E.M.
• Publish : Marcel Dekker, Inc New York and Basel
• Type Document : pdf 
• Release : December 2002
• Total Page : 11 page
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The Facility Survey
The survey of the facility is considered a very important part of the industrial energy audit. Chapter 1 indicated that there are many types of surveys, from a simple walk-through to a complete quantification of uses and losses. This chapter will illustrate various types of instruments that can aid in the industrial audit.
 

COMPARING CATALOGUE DATA WITH ACTUAL PERFORMANCE
Many energy managers are surprised when they record actual performance data of equipment and compare it with catalogue information. There is usually a great disparity between the two.
Each manufacturer has design tolerance for its equipment. For critical equipment, performance guarantees or tests should be incorporated into the initial specifications.
As part of the facility survey, nameplate data of pumps, motors, chillers, fans, etc., should be taken. The nameplate data should also be compared to actual running conditions.
The initial survey can detect motors that were sized too big. By replacing the motor with a smaller one, energy savings can be realized. 

INFRARED EQUIPMENT
Some companies may have the wrong impression that infrared equipment can meet most of their instrumentation needs. The primary use of infrared equipment in an energy utilization program is to detect building or equipment losses. Thus it is just one of the many options available.

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Plant Engineers & Managers Guide 02

• Title : Plant Engineers & Managers Guide 02 by Albert Thumann, P.E., C.E.M.
• Publish : Marcel Dekker, Inc New York and Basel
• Type Document : pdf 
• Release : December 2002
• Total Page : 32 page
• Size : 0.50 Mb

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Energy Economic Decision Making
LIFE CYCLE COSTING
When a plant manager is assigned the role of energy manager, the first question to be asked is: “What is the economic basis for equipment purchases?”
Some companies use a simple payback method of two years or less to justify equipment purchases. Others require a life cycle cost analysis with no fuel price inflation considered. Still other companies allow for a complete life cycle cost analysis, including the impact for the fuel price inflation and the energy tax credit.
The energy manager’s success is directly related to how he or she must justify energy utilization methods.

USING THE PAYBACK PERIOD METHOD
The payback period is the time required to recover the capital investment out of the earnings or savings. This method ignores all savings beyond the payback years, thus penalizing projects that have long life potentials for those that offer high savings for a relatively short period.

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Plant Engineers & Managers Guide 01

• Title : Plant Engineers & Managers Guide 01 by Albert Thumann, P.E., C.E.M.
• Publish : Marcel Dekker, Inc New York and Basel
• Type Document : pdf 
• Release : December 2002
• Total Page : 24 page
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The Role of the Plant Engineer In Energy Management
Energy management is now considered part of every plant engineer’s job. Today the plant engineer needs to keep abreast of changing energy factors which must be incorporated into the overall energy management program. The accomplishments of energy management have indeed been outstanding. In a 1998 opinion survey conducted by the Association of Energy Engineers, 22.2 percent of those responding indicated that they have saved their companies at least five million dollars in accumulated energy costs since being employed. Eighteen percent had slashed energy costs 26 percent or more since the program was started.
Safety, maintenance and now energy management are some of the areas in which a plant engineer is expected to be knowledgeable. The cook book and low cost-no cost energy conservation measures which were emphasized in the 1970s have been replaced with a more sophisticated approach.
The plant engineer of the 2000s must have a keen understanding of both the technical and managerial aspects of energy management in order to insure its success. When oil prices dropped in 1986 it was an opportunity in many plants to switch back to oil. As electric prices escalated it was an opportunity for many plants to install cogeneration facilities. In the late 1990s deregulation took hold, opening up new opportunities in energy purchasing. Thus the energy management area is ever changing.
Energy management or energy utilization has replaced the simplistic house keeping measures approach.

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Plant Engineers & Managers Guide 00

• Title : Plant Engineers & Managers Guide 00 by Albert Thumann, P.E., C.E.M.
• Publish : Marcel Dekker, Inc New York and Basel
• Type Document : pdf 
• Release : December 2002
• Total Page : 9 page
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Introduction
Plant engineers and managers of the 21st century are expected to apply new technologies, purchase energy at the best price and keep their plants running despite power outages. It is clear that energy conservation is part of every plant engineer's and manager's job.

It is also clear that applying this technology has significant rewards. In a recent survey conducted by the Association of Energy Engineers, 22.2% of members surveyed have reduced accumulated costs by $5 million or more. The potential for additional savings is still great. Thirtysix percent of those surveyed indicated further savings amounting to over 10% were possible.
 

As we embark on the new century it has become clear that global competitiveness and energy conservation go hand in hand. Energy conservation means good business. Energy conservation means eliminating waste and insuring operations are more productive. Energy conservation means improving the quality of industrial facility management and preventing pollution. Energy conservation means improving the environment through pollution prevention, and minimizing global warming trends.

The role of the energy manager is ever changing. Today’s energy manager must understand how to negotiate the best electric and gas contract as well as understand how to incorporate new energy-efficient technologies into plant operations. The energy manager must have a keen understanding of all aspects of plant operations from purchasing practices to organizational structure. The energy manager must seek out new financing opportunities to fund energy-efficient projects. The challenge has always been great. The stakes, however, are higher than ever.

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Petroleum & Gas Field Processing 13

• Title : Petroleum & Gas Field Processing 13 by H.K. Abdel-Aal and Mohamed Aggour - King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, M.A Fahim Kuwait University Safat, Kuwait
• Publish : Marceld Ekkeirn, C New York Basel
• Type Document : pdf 
• Release : December 2003
• Total Page : 22 page
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Recovery, Separation, and Fractionation of Natural Gas Liquids

INTRODUCTION
The material presented in this chapter includes two parts: the recovery and separation of natural gas liquid (NGL) constituents, and methods of  fractionation into finished product streams suitable for sale. In the first part, several alternatives for the separation and recovery of NGL are detailed. They are essentially based on phase change either by using energy separating agent (ESA) or mass separating agent (MSA). Thus, partial liquefaction or condensation of some specific NGL constituents will lead to their separation from the bulk of the gas stream. Total condensation is also a possibility. The role of the operating parameters that influence phase change, hence NGL separation from the bulk of gas, is discussed.
The second part of the chapter covers materials on fractionation facilities that are recommended to produce specification quality products from NGL. 

Types of fractionator with recommended feed streams as well as produced products are highlighted in this part.

RECOVERY AND SEPARATION OF NGL
Options of Phase Change
To recover and separate NGL from a bulk of gas stream, a change in phase has to take place. In other words, a new phase has to be developed for separation to occur. Two distinctive options are in practice depending on the use of ESA or MSA.

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Petroleum & Gas Field Processing 12

• Title : Petroleum & Gas Field Processing 12 by H.K. Abdel-Aal and Mohamed Aggour - King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, M.A Fahim Kuwait University Safat, Kuwait
• Publish : Marceld Ekkeirn, C New York Basel
• Type Document : pdf 
• Release : December 2003
• Total Page : 34 page
• Size : 0.39 Mb

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Gas Dehydration

INTRODUCTION
Natural gas dehydration is the process of removing water vapor from the gas stream to lower the dew point of that gas. Water is the most common contaminant of hydrocarbons. It is always present in the gas–oil mixtures produced from wells. The dew point is defined as the temperature at which water vapor condenses from the gas stream. The sale contracts of natural gas specify either its dew point or the maximum amount of water vapor present.
There are three basic reasons for the dehydration of natural gas streams:
1. To prevent hydrate formation. Hydrates are solids formed by the physical combination of water and other small molecules of hydrocarbons. They are icy hydrocarbon compounds of about 10% hydrocarbons and 90% water. Hydrates grow as crystals and can build up in orifice plates, valves, and other areas not
subjected to full flow. Thus, hydrates can plug lines and retard the flow of gaseous hydrocarbon streams. The primary conditions promoting hydration formation are the following:

• Gas must be at or below its water (dew) point with ‘‘free’’ water present.
• Low temperature.
• High pressure.

2. To avoid corrosion problems. Corrosion often occurs when liquid water is present along with acidic gases, which tend to dissolve and disassociate in the water phase, forming acidic solutions. The acidic solutions can be extremely corrosive, especially for carbon steel, which is typically used in the construction of most hydrocarbon processing facilities.

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Petroleum & Gas Field Processing 11

• Title : Petroleum & Gas Field Processing 11 by H.K. Abdel-Aal and Mohamed Aggour - King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, M.A Fahim Kuwait University Safat, Kuwait
• Publish : Marceld Ekkeirn, C New York Basel
• Type Document : pdf 
• Release : December 2003
• Total Page : 34 page
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Sour Gas Treating

INTRODUCTION
Natural gas usually contains some impurities such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S), carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapor (H2O), and heavy hydrocarbons such as mercaptans. These compounds are known as ‘‘acid gases.’’ Natural gas with H2S or other sulfur compounds (such as COS, CS2 and mercaptans) is called ‘‘sour gas,’’ whereas gas with only CO2 is called ‘‘sweet gas.’’ It is usually desirable to remove both H2S and CO2 to prevent corrosion problems and to increase heating value of the gas.
Sweetening of natural gas is one of the most important steps in gas processing for the following reasons:

• Health hazards. At 0.13 ppm, H2S can be sensed by smell. At 4.6 ppm, the smell is quite noticeable. As the concentration  increases beyond 200 ppm, the sense of smell fatigues, and the gas can no longer be detected by odor. At 500 ppm, breathing problems are observed and death can be expected in minutes. At1000 ppm, death occurs immediately.

• Sales contracts. Three of the most important natural gas pipeline specification are related to sulfur content, as shown in Table 1.Such contracts depend on negotiations, but they are quite strictabout H2S content.

• Corrosion problems. If the partial pressure of CO2 exceeds15 psia, inhibitors usually can only be used to prevent corrosion.The partial pressure of CO2 depends on the mole fraction of CO2 in the gas and the natural gas pressure. Corrosion rates will alsodepend on temperature. Special metallurgy should be used ifCO2 partial pressure exceeds 15 psia. The presence of H2S will cause metal embrittlement due to the stresses formed around metal sulfides formed.

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Petroleum & Gas Field Processing 10

• Title : Petroleum & Gas Field Processing 10 by H.K. Abdel-Aal and Mohamed Aggour - King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, M.A Fahim Kuwait University Safat, Kuwait
• Publish : Marceld Ekkeirn, C New York Basel
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• Release : December 2003
• Total Page : 6 page
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Overview of Gas Field Processing

PLANNING THE SYSTEM
Part IV of the book is devoted to field treatment and processing operations of natural gas and other associated products. These include dehydration, acidic gas removal (H2S and CO2), and the separation and fractionation of liquid hydrocarbons [known as natural gas liquid (NGL)]. 

Sweetening of natural gas almost always precedes dehydration and other gas plant processes carried out for the separation of NGL. Dehydration, on the other hand, is usually required before the gas can be sold for pipeline marketing and it is a necessary step in the recovery of NGL from natural gas.
For convenience, a system involving field treatment of a gas project could be divided into two main stages, as shown in Figure 1:

• Stage I, known as gas treatment or gas conditioning
• Stage II, known as gas processing

The gas treatment operations carried out in stage I involve the removal of gas contaminants (acidic gases), followed by the separation of water vapor (dehydration), as explained in Chapters 11 and 12, respectively. Gas processing, stage II, on the other hand, comprises two operations: NGL recovery and separation from the bulk of gas and its subsequent fractionation into desired products. The purpose of a fractionator’s facility is simply to produce individual finished streams needed for market sales.

Fractionation facilities play a significant role in gas plants, as given in  Chapter 13. Gas field processing in general is carried out for two main objectives:

• The necessity to remove impurities from the gas
• The desirability to increase liquid recovery above that obtained by conventional gas processing

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Petroleum & Gas Field Processing 09

• Title : Petroleum & Gas Field Processing 09 by H.K. Abdel-Aal and Mohamed Aggour - King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, M.A Fahim Kuwait University Safat, Kuwait
• Publish : Marceld Ekkeirn, C New York Basel
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• Release : December 2003
• Total Page : 31 page
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Produced Water Treatment

INTRODUCTION
Production of crude oil and natural gas is usually associated with the production of water. During the early life of the petroleum fields, water-free production of oil and gas is normally experienced. However, water will eventually be produced later. The produced water may be water that exists within the petroleum reservoir as connate water or bottom water. Alternatively, water may be produced as a result of water-flooding operations, where water is injected into the reservoir to enhance the recovery.
Water production presents serious operating, economic, and environmental problems. Production of water with the crude oil or natural gas reduces the productivity of the well due to the increased pressure losses throughout the production system. This may either result in reduced production or necessitate the installation of costly artificial lifting systems to maintain the desired production levels. Production of water also results in serious corrosion problems, which add to the cost of the operation. As discussed in the previous chapters, production of water with the crude oil or natural gas requires the use of three-phase separators, emulsion treatment, and desalting systems, which further add to the cost of the operation.
In most situations, the produced water has no value and should be disposed of. In other situations, the produced water may be used for water flooding or reservoir pressure maintenance. The produced water, collected from the separation, emulsion treatment, and desalting systems, contains hydrocarbon concentrations that are too high for environmentally safe disposal. The presence of the hydrocarbon droplets in the water makes it difficult to inject the water into disposal wells or into water-injection wells

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Petroleum & Gas Field Processing 08

• Title : Petroleum & Gas Field Processing 08 by H.K. Abdel-Aal and Mohamed Aggour - King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, M.A Fahim Kuwait University Safat, Kuwait
• Publish : Marceld Ekkeirn, C New York Basel
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• Release : December 2003
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Storage Tanks and Other Field Facilities
This chapter is devoted to the discussion of storage tanks of crude oil and other hydrocarbons, vapor recovery units (VRUs), and piping in the oil field, including gathering schemes.

STORAGE TANKS

Introduction
The design of storage tanks for crude oil and petroleum products requires, in general, careful consideration of the following important factors: 

• The vapor pressure of the materials to be stored
• The storage temperature and pressure
• Toxicity of the petroleum material

In order to meet the environmental constraints on air pollution, to prevent fire hazards, and to avoid losses of valuable petroleum products at the same time, it is recommended to adopt the following:

• The use of floating-roof tanks for petroleum materials with a vapor pressure of 1.12–11.5 psia (at the storage temperature) or 
•  Using fixed-roof tanks along with the VRU system (to be described later).

These alternatives are schematically illustrated in Figure 1. Storage tanks for crude oil are needed in order to receive and collect oil produced by wells, before pumping to the pipelines as well as to allow for measuring oil properties, sampling, and gauging.

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Petroleum & Gas Field Processing 07

• Title : Petroleum & Gas Field Processing 07 [ pdf ] by H.K. Abdel-Aal and Mohamed Aggour - King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, M.A Fahim Kuwait University Safat, Kuwait
• Publish : Marceld Ekkeirn, C New York Basel
• Type Document : pdf
• Release : December 2003
• Total Page : 12 page
• Size : 0.34 Mb

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Decrypted Contents

Crude Oil Stabilization and Sweetening

INTRODUCTION
Once degassed and dehydrated–desalted, crude oil is pumped to gathering facilities to be stored in storage tanks. However, if there are any dissolved gases that belong to the light or the intermediate hydrocarbon groups (as was explained in Chap. 3), it will be necessary to remove these gases along with hydrogen sulfide (if present in the crude) before oil can be stored. This process is described as a ‘‘dual process’’ of both stabilizing and sweetening a crude oil.
In stabilization, adjusting the pentanes and lighter fractions retained in the stock tank liquid can change the crude oil gravity. The economic value of the crude oil is accordingly influenced by stabilization. First, liquids can be stored and transported to the market more profitably than gas. Second, it is advantageous to minimize gas losses from light crude oil when stored.
This chapter deals with methods for stabilizing the crude oil to maximize the volume of production as well as its API gravity, against two important constraints imposed by its vapor pressure and the allowable hydrogen sulfide content.
To illustrate the impact of stabilization and sweetening on the quality of crude oil, the properties of oil before and after treatment are compared as follows:

Before treatment
Water content: up to 3% of crude in the form of emulsions and from 3% to 30% of crude as free water
Salt content: 50,000–250,000 mg/L formation water

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